Arabic maqam

In traditional Arabic music, the maqam (Arabic: مقام, romanized: maqām, meaning "ascent"; pl. مقامات maqāmāt) functions as a system of melodic modes. The term maqam translates from Arabic as "place," "location," or "position." This Arabic maqam represents a distinct melody type, serving as "a technique of improvisation" that dictates the pitches, patterns, and developmental structure of a musical composition, a characteristic "unique to Arabic art music." The system encompasses 72 heptatonic tone rows or scales, which are formed from augmented, major, neutral, and minor second intervals. Each individual maqam is founded upon a specific scale and embodies a tradition that prescribes its characteristic phrases, significant notes, melodic progression, and modulation. Both composed and improvised pieces within traditional Arabic music adhere to the maqam framework. Maqamat can be performed vocally or instrumentally and inherently lack a rhythmic element.

A crucial aspect of performance is that each maqam delineates a "tonal-spatial factor," comprising a specific collection of musical notes and their interrelationships, alongside traditional melodic patterns and development. Conversely, the "rhythmic-temporal component" remains "subjected to no definite organization." Consequently, a maqam lacks an "established, regularly recurring bar scheme nor an unchanging meter." While a particular rhythm may occasionally distinguish a performer's style, this is contingent upon their individual technique and is never an inherent characteristic of the maqam itself. The precompositional dimension of the maqam involves its tonal-spatial organization, including the arrangement of tone levels, whereas its improvisational facet pertains to the creation of the rhythmic-temporal structure.

Background

The term maqam first emerged in fourteenth-century treatises authored by al-Sheikh al-Safadi and Abdulqadir al-Maraghi, subsequently becoming a standard technical term in Arabic music. This maqam represents a modal structure fundamental to the musical traditions of North Africa, the Near East, and Central Asia. The primary musical cultures associated with the maqam modal family are Arabic, Persian, and Turkish.

Tuning System

The pitches within a maqam are not consistently tuned to equal temperament, implying that the frequency ratios between consecutive notes are not uniformly identical. Furthermore, a maqam dictates elements such as the tonic (initial note), the final note, and the dominant note. It also specifies which notes require emphasis and which should be de-emphasized.

The majority of Arabic maqamat are constructed upon a seven-note musical scale that reiterates at the octave; however, exceptions exist, such as hijaz kar kurd. Certain maqamat incorporate two or more alternative scales, exemplified by Rast, Nahawand, and Hijaz. In traditional Arabic music, Maqam scales are microtonal, diverging from the twelve-tone equal-tempered tuning system prevalent in modern Western music. Most maqam scales feature either a perfect fifth or a perfect fourth, or both, and all octaves are perfect. The remaining notes within a maqam scale may not precisely align with semitones. Consequently, maqam scales are primarily transmitted through oral instruction and extensive immersion in the traditional Arabic music repertoire.

Notation

Given the impracticality of precisely notating every potential microtonal interval, a simplified musical notation system was implemented in Arabic music around the turn of the 20th century. This system divides the octave into 24 equal steps, based on a chromatic scale (24 equal temperament), where a quarter tone corresponds to half a semitone in a 12-tone equal-tempered scale. Within this notation, all notes of a maqam are approximated to the nearest quarter tone.

While this notation system sacrifices some detail, it offers significant practical advantages by enabling the transcription of maqamat using standard Western notation. Quarter tones are represented by half-flats ( or ) or half-sharps (). When scales are transcribed using this system, some maqam scales incorporate quarter tones, whereas others do not.

In practice, maqamat are not typically performed across the full range of chromatic keys and exhibit greater transpositional rigidity compared to Western musical scales, primarily due to the inherent technical constraints of traditional Arabic instruments. Consequently, half-sharps are seldom encountered in maqam scales, with E and B being the most prevalent half-flats, and A appearing less frequently.

Intonation

The 24-tone system functions solely as a notational convention and does not dictate the precise intonation of performed notes. Despite employing the terminology of the 24-tone system (e.g., half-flats and half-sharps), contemporary Arab musicians frequently render the intricate microtonal nuances preserved through centuries of oral tradition.

Certain maqamat, specifically those lacking quarter tones (e.g., Nahawand, ‘Ajam), are amenable to performance on equal-tempered instruments like the piano; however, these instruments are incapable of accurately replicating the intricate microtonal characteristics inherent in the maqam scale. Accurate rendition of Maqamat is achievable either on fretless instruments (e.g., the oud or violin) or on instruments offering substantial tunability and microtonal precision (e.g., the nay, qanun, or clarinet). For fretted instruments equipped with steel strings, microtonal manipulation can be accomplished through string bending techniques, analogous to those employed in blues music.

The precise intonation of each maqam exhibits variation across historical periods and geographical regions (comparable to the regional variations observed in linguistic accents). Consequently, and given the infrequent precise and accurate notation of microtonal deviations from a twelve-tone equal-tempered scale, the practical acquisition of maqamat predominantly relies on aural transmission.

Phases and Central Tones

Each musical passage comprises one or more phases, defined as sections "played on one tone or within one tonal area," with an articulation duration ranging from seven to forty seconds. An illustrative example is a tonal level centered on G:

Tonal levels, also known as axial pitches, commence in the lower register, progressively ascending to a climax before subsequently descending, as demonstrated, for instance (using European-influenced notation):

"When all possibilities of the musical structuring of such a tone level have been fully explored, the phase is complete."

Nucleus

The central tones within a maqam are derived from two distinct intervals. The eleven central tones exemplified in the aforementioned phase sequence can be condensed to three, constituting the maqam's "nucleus":

The melodic contours of various maqamat can be identical, as observed in maqam Bayati and maqam 'Ushshaq Turki:

yet they are differentiated by distinct nuclei. Bayati is presented in the preceding illustration, whereas 'Ushshaq Turki is represented as follows:

Ajnas

Maqamat are constructed from smaller, consecutive note groupings, each possessing a highly recognizable melodic character and conveying a distinct emotional quality. These groupings are termed jins (Arabic: جنس; plural: ajnās أجناس), signifying "gender" or "kind". Typically, a jins comprises four consecutive notes (a tetrachord), though ajnas consisting of three (trichord) or five (pentachord) consecutive notes are also encountered. Furthermore, exceptional ajnas of indeterminate lengths also exist.

Ajnas serve as the fundamental structural components of a maqam. Each maqam scale incorporates a lower (or primary) jins and an upper (or secondary) jins. Maqamat are predominantly categorized into families or branches according to their lower jins. The upper jins can commence either on the terminal note of the lower jins or on the subsequent note. Instances of overlap between the upper and lower ajnas are also observed. The initial note of the upper jins is designated as the dominant, holding the second most significant position in the scale after the tonic. Maqam scales frequently incorporate secondary ajnas that originate on pitches distinct from the tonic or dominant. These secondary ajnas become prominent during modulatory passages.

Scholarly works on Arabic music theory frequently present divergent classifications of ajnas. A definitive consensus regarding a comprehensive list of all ajnas, their nomenclature, or their dimensions remains elusive. Nevertheless, most sources concur on the existence of nine fundamental ajnas, which also form the basis for the nine principal maqam families. Presented below is a compilation of these nine fundamental ajnas, transcribed using Western standard notation (with all notes approximated to the nearest quarter tone):

Maqam classifications are organized into families.

Maqam families

• The ‘Ajam family encompasses the Major Scale, specifically ‘Ajam (عجم), Jiharkah (جهاركاه), Shawq Afza (شوق افزا or شوق أفزا), and Ajam Ushayran (عجم عشيران).
• The Bayati family comprises Bayatayn (بیاتین), Bayati (بياتي), Bayati Shuri (بياتي شوري), Husayni (حسيني), Nahfat (نهفت), and Huseini Ushayran (حسيني عشيران).
• The Hijaz family, which aligns with the Phrygian Dominant Scale, includes Hijaz (حجاز), Hijaz Kar (حجاز كار), Shad ‘Araban (شد عربان), Shahnaz (شهناز), Suzidil (سوزدل), Zanjaran (زنجران), and Hijazain (حجازين).
• The Kurd family, corresponding to the Phrygian Scale, features Kurd (كرد), Hijaz Kar Kurd (حجاز كار كرد), and Lami (لامي).
• The Nahawand family, which is analogous to the Minor Scale, includes Farahfaza (فرحفزا), Nahawand (نهاوند), Nahawand Murassah (نهاوند مرصّع or نهاوند مرصع), ‘Ushaq Masri (عشاق مصري), and Sultani Yakah (سلطاني ياكاه).
• The Nawa Athar family consists of Athar Kurd (أثر كرد), Nawa Athar (نوى أثر or نوى اثر), Nikriz (نكريز), and Hisar (حصار).
• The Rast family includes Mahur (ماهور), Nairuz (نيروز), Rast (راست), Suznak (سوزناك), and Yakah (يكاه).
• The Saba family contains Saba (صبا) and Saba Zamzam (صبا زمزم).
• The Sikah family is composed of Bastah Nikar (بسته نكار), Huzam (هزام), ‘Iraq (عراق), Musta‘ar (مستعار), Rahat al-Arwah (راحة الأرواح), Sikah (سيكاه), and Sikah Baladi (سيكاه بلدي).

Emotional Connotations

Each maqam is often associated with a distinct emotion or emotional complex, which is determined by its specific tone row and nucleus; consequently, maqams sharing a tone row may elicit different emotions due to variations in their nuclei. For instance, Maqam Rast is linked to feelings of pride, power, and mental clarity, while Maqam Bayati is associated with vitality, joy, and femininity. Sikah is said to evoke love, Saba sadness and pain, and Hijaz a sense of a distant desert.

An experimental study involving an equal number of Arab and non-Arab participants, who were instructed to document their emotional responses to maqam Saba using concentric circles to denote intensity, revealed divergent perceptions. Arab participants predominantly characterized Saba as "sad," "tragic," and "lamenting." In contrast, only 48 percent of non-Arab participants shared this interpretation, with 28 percent reporting feelings such as "seriousness," "longing," and "tension." Furthermore, 6 percent of non-Arabs experienced emotions like "happy," "active," and "very lively," while 10 percent reported no discernible feelings.

The evocation of these emotions is purportedly influenced by variations in interval sizes during a maqam's performance. For instance, Maqam Saba's initial four notes—D, E, F, and G♭—feature two medium seconds: one measuring 160 cents and another 140 cents, both differing from a three-quarter tone, alongside a minor second of 95 cents. Additionally, slight fluctuations in E and G♭ are believed to contribute to a "sad" or "sensitive" emotional state.

Each maqam is generally understood to elicit a distinct emotional response in the listener. More fundamentally, each jins is posited to communicate a unique mood or tonal quality. Consequently, maqams within the same family are often considered to share a common emotional character due to their shared initial jins. Nevertheless, a definitive consensus regarding the precise mood of each maqam or jins remains elusive. Certain sources characterize maqam moods with imprecise and subjective language, such as maqams evoking 'love,' 'femininity,' 'pride,' or a 'distant desert.' Crucially, no rigorous scientific research employing diverse listener samples, encompassing both Arab and non-Arab individuals, has conclusively demonstrated a consistent emotional experience across listeners for the same maqam.

Applying a similar analytical framework to contemporary tonal classical music would involve correlating specific moods with major and minor modes. Within this context, a general consensus suggests that the minor scale conveys a "sadder" affect, while the major scale is associated with a "happier" one.

Modulation

Modulation constitutes a fundamental technique employed in the melodic evolution of a maqam. Fundamentally, it entails transitioning from one maqam to another, typically a compatible or closely related maqam. This process necessitates the adoption of a distinct musical scale. Extended musical compositions may incorporate modulations across multiple maqamat, yet they commonly conclude with the initial maqam; however, in exceptional instances, the objective of modulation is to resolve in a novel maqam. A more nuanced form of modulation, occurring within the confines of a single maqam, involves redirecting melodic emphasis from one jins to another, thereby suggesting an emergent maqam.

Modulation significantly enhances musical engagement and is an ubiquitous feature in nearly all maqam-derived melodies. Aesthetically pleasing modulations are achieved through adherence to compatible pairings of ajnas and maqamat, combinations deeply rooted in traditional Arabic musical practice. While these combinations are frequently cataloged in scholarly musical texts, the majority of seasoned musicians acquire proficiency through extensive auditory experience.

Global Dissemination and Impact

During the Islamic Golden Age, this musical framework exerted influence on diverse musical systems globally. A prominent illustration is its impact on the music of the Iberian Peninsula during the Muslim dominion of Al-Andalus. Furthermore, Sephardic Jewish liturgy incorporates the maqam system, where the cantor selects the weekly maqam according to the congregation's emotional disposition or the designated Torah portion for the week. This specific application is termed the Weekly Maqam. The Arabic maqam also notably influenced Sicilian music.

Mujawwad

• Mujawwad
• Ali Merdan
• The Iraqi Maqam
• Melisma
• Pizmonim
• The Weekly Maqam
• Taqsim
• Raga
• Harmonic minor
• Turkish makam
• Persian dastgah

References

Sources

• Touma, Habib Hassan (1996). The Music of the Arabs. Translated by Laurie Schwartz. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. ISBN 0-931340-88-8.el-Mahdi, Salah (1972). Arabic Music: Structures, History, Organology. Paris, France: Alphonse Leduc, Editions Musicales. ISBN 2-85689-029-6.
  • el-Mahdi, Salah (1972). La musique arabe : structures, historique, organologie. Paris, France: Alphonse Leduc, Editions Musicales. ISBN 2-85689-029-6.
  • Lagrange, Frédéric (1996). Music of Egypt. Cité de la musique / Actes Sud. ISBN 2-7427-0711-5.
  • Maalouf, Shireen (2002). History of Arabic Music Theory. Lebanon: Université Saint-Esprit de Kaslik. OCLC 52037253.Marcus, Scott Lloyd (1989). Arab Music Theory in the Modern Period (Ph.D. dissertation). Los Angeles: University of California. OCLC 20767535.Farraj, Johnny; Abu Shumays, Sami (2019). Inside Arabic Music. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0190658359.
    • Maqam World
      • Maqam World: What is a Maqam?
    • Sephardic Pizmonim Project – Jewish use of Maqamat
    • Illustration of popular maqams on YouTube
    • Chazzanut Sephardic Yerushalmi, Rabbi Hagay Batzri Archived 2017-09-13 at the Wayback Machine