Synthesizer

The synthesizer (also known as a synthesiser or synth) is an electronic musical instrument designed to generate audio signals. Sound generation commonly involves waveform creation through methods such as subtractive, additive, and frequency modulation synthesis. These sounds can be modified by components including filters, which adjust frequencies; envelopes, which control note articulation; and low-frequency oscillators, which modulate parameters like pitch, volume, or filter characteristics, thereby influencing timbre. Synthesizers are typically operated via keyboards or controlled by sequencers, software, or other instruments, and can be synchronized with external equipment using MIDI.

A synthesizer (also synthesiser or synth) is an electronic musical instrument that generates audio signals. Synthesizers typically create sounds by generating waveforms through methods including subtractive synthesis, additive synthesis, and frequency modulation synthesis. These sounds may be altered by components such as filters, which cut or boost frequencies; envelopes, which control articulation, or how notes begin and end; and low-frequency oscillators, which modulate parameters such as pitch, volume, or filter characteristics affecting timbre. Synthesizers are typically played with keyboards or controlled by sequencers, software or other instruments, and can be synchronized to other equipment via MIDI.

In the mid-20th century, synthesizer-like instruments, such as the RCA Mark II, which utilized punch cards for control and incorporated hundreds of vacuum tubes, began to appear in the United States. The Moog synthesizer, developed by Robert Moog and introduced commercially in 1964, is recognized for establishing foundational concepts like voltage-controlled oscillators, envelopes, noise generators, filters, and sequencers. By 1970, the Minimoog, a more compact and affordable instrument, standardized synthesizers as self-contained units featuring integrated keyboards, diverging from the larger, modular designs that preceded it.

In 1978, Sequential Circuits introduced the Prophet-5, a synthesizer that incorporated microprocessors, enabling users to store sounds for the first time. MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface), a standardized protocol for synchronizing electronic instruments, was introduced in 1982 and continues to be an industry standard. The Yamaha DX7, launched in 1983, achieved significant commercial success and contributed to the widespread adoption of digital synthesis. Contemporary software synthesizers can operate as plug-ins or be integrated onto microchips. The 21st century witnessed a resurgence in the popularity of analog synthesizers, largely due to advancements in more affordable manufacturing processes.

Initially, synthesizers were regarded as avant-garde instruments, appreciated within the 1960s psychedelic and countercultural movements but perceived to have limited commercial viability. The bestselling album Switched-On Bach (1968), featuring Bach compositions arranged for synthesizer by Wendy Carlos, propelled synthesizers into mainstream recognition. Synthesizers were subsequently adopted by electronic, pop, and rock artists throughout the 1960s and 1970s, becoming extensively utilized in 1980s music. The introduction of sampling with the Fairlight synthesizer in 1979 significantly impacted genres like electronic and hip hop music. Presently, the synthesizer is employed across virtually all musical genres and is considered among the most crucial instruments in the music industry. As stated by Fact in 2016, "The synthesizer is as important, and as ubiquitous, in modern music today as the human voice."

History

Precursors

The early 20th century, marked by increasing electrical accessibility, witnessed the invention of several electronic musical instruments, including the Telharmonium, Trautonium, Ondes Martenot, and Theremin. In the late 1930s, the Hammond Organ Company constructed the Novachord, a substantial instrument powered by 72 voltage-controlled amplifiers and 146 vacuum tubes. Canadian engineer Hugh Le Caine completed the electronic sackbut in 1948; this instrument, a precursor to voltage-controlled synthesizers, featured keyboard sensitivity that enabled vibrato, glissando, and attack control.

In 1957, Harry Olson and Herbert Belar finalized the RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer at the RCA laboratories in Princeton, New Jersey. This instrument operated by reading punched paper tape, which controlled an analog synthesizer comprising 750 vacuum tubes. Subsequently, it was acquired by the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center and utilized nearly exclusively by Milton Babbitt, a composer affiliated with Princeton University.

1960s: Early years

The period between 1964 and the mid-1970s is identified by the authors of Analog Days as "the early years of the synthesizer," commencing with the introduction of the Moog synthesizer, designed by American engineer Robert Moog. The Moog synthesizer consisted of distinct modules interconnected by patch cables, which were used to generate, shape, or control sound. Moog innovated a method for pitch control using voltage, known as the voltage-controlled oscillator. This innovation, alongside other Moog-developed components like envelopes, noise generators, filters, and sequencers, subsequently became standard features in synthesizers.

Concurrently, American engineer Don Buchla developed the Buchla Modular Electronic Music System, which utilized touchplates to transmit control voltages based on finger position and force, rather than a conventional keyboard. Nevertheless, Moog's keyboard design enhanced accessibility and marketability for musicians, establishing keyboards as the standard interface for synthesizer control. Both Moog and Buchla initially refrained from using the term synthesizer for their instruments due to its association with the RCA synthesizer; however, by the 1970s, this designation had become universally accepted.

The 1970s: Advancements in Portability, Polyphony, and Patch Memory

In 1970, Moog introduced the Minimoog, a more affordable and compact synthesizer. This instrument marked the first synthesizer retailed in music stores and offered enhanced practicality for live performances. It solidified the concept of synthesizers as integrated units featuring built-in keyboards. During the early 1970s, British composer Ken Freeman pioneered the first string synthesizer, specifically engineered to replicate orchestral string sections.

Following the commencement of synthesizer retail sales in 1971, several other synthesizer manufacturers emerged, including ARP in the United States and EMS in the United Kingdom. ARP's product line encompassed the ARP 2600, which featured a foldable design with integrated speakers, and the Odyssey, a direct competitor to the Minimoog. The more economical EMS synthesizers found favor among European art rock and progressive rock artists, notably Brian Eno and Pink Floyd. Synthesizer designs also became available in the amateur electronics market, exemplified by a design published in Practical Electronics in 1973. By the mid-1970s, ARP had become the world's leading synthesizer manufacturer, though the company ceased operations in 1981.

Early synthesizers were inherently monophonic, capable of producing only a single note at any given moment. Among the initial commercial polyphonic synthesizers were those developed by American engineer Tom Oberheim, such as the OB-X (1979). In 1978, the American firm Sequential Circuits launched the Prophet-5, which represented the first fully programmable polyphonic synthesizer. While previous synthesizers necessitated manual adjustment of cables and knobs to alter sounds, without ensuring precise replication, the Prophet-5 employed microprocessors to store sounds in patch memory. This innovation facilitated a transition from synthesizers generating unpredictable sounds to producing "a standard package of familiar sounds."

The 1980s: The Emergence of Digital Technology

The synthesizer market experienced substantial expansion throughout the 1980s. The year 1982 marked the introduction of MIDI, a standardized protocol for synchronizing electronic instruments that continues to be an industry benchmark. The Fairlight CMI, an influential sampling synthesizer released in 1979, possessed the capability to record and reproduce samples at varying pitches. Despite its prohibitive cost, which limited amateur access, it was adopted by prominent pop musicians, including Kate Bush and Peter Gabriel. The success of the Fairlight spurred competition, leading to advancements in sampling technology and subsequent price reductions. Early rival samplers included the E-mu Emulator in 1981 and the Akai S-series in 1985.

In 1983, Yamaha introduced the Yamaha DX7, the first commercially successful digital synthesizer. Based on frequency modulation (FM) synthesis, a technique developed by Stanford University engineer John Chowning, the DX7 was characterized by its harsh, glassy, and chilly timbres, contrasting with the warm and fuzzy sounds associated with analog synthesis. The DX7 was the first synthesizer to exceed 100,000 units sold and remains one of the highest-selling synthesizers in history, seeing extensive use in 1980s pop music.

Digital synthesizers typically incorporated preset sounds designed to emulate acoustic instruments, with algorithms managed via menus and buttons. The Synclavier, which utilized FM technology licensed from Yamaha, offered advanced features such as 16-bit sampling and digital recording. With an initial price of $13,000, its deployment was restricted to academic institutions, professional studios, and affluent artists. The Roland D-50 (1987) combined Roland's linear arithmetic algorithm with samples and was the first mass-produced synthesizer to include integrated digital effects like delay, reverb, and chorus. In 1988, the Japanese manufacturer Korg released the M1, a digital synthesizer workstation featuring sampled transients and loops. With over 250,000 units sold, it holds the distinction of being the bestselling synthesizer in history. The proliferation of digital synthesizers subsequently contributed to a decline in interest in analog synthesizers during the ensuing decade.

1990s–Present: The Advent of Software Synthesizers and the Resurgence of Analog Technology

The year 1997 marked a significant milestone with the introduction of ReBirth by Propellerhead Software and Reality by Seer Systems, pioneering the first software synthesizers capable of real-time performance via MIDI. Further advancements occurred in 1999 when an update to the music software Cubase enabled the integration of software instruments, including synthesizers, as plug-ins, thereby catalyzing a proliferation of new virtual instruments. Propellerhead's Reason, launched in 2000, subsequently presented a comprehensive suite of familiar virtual studio equipment.

The late 1990s witnessed a resurgence in the market for patchable and modular synthesizers. Throughout the 2000s, vintage analog synthesizers experienced a notable increase in popularity, frequently commanding prices significantly exceeding their initial retail values. The 2010s saw the introduction of new, more accessible analog synthesizers from prominent manufacturers such as Moog, Korg, Arturia, and Dave Smith Instruments. This renewed interest is attributed to the allure of imperfect, organic sound qualities and more intuitive interfaces, alongside advancements in modern surface-mount technology, which have facilitated the more economical and rapid production of analog synthesizers.

Impact and Influence

Initially, synthesizers were perceived as avant-garde instruments, highly valued within the 1960s psychedelic and counter-cultural movements for their capacity to generate novel sonic textures, despite having limited perceived commercial viability. The bestselling album Switched-On Bach (1968), featuring Bach compositions meticulously arranged for the Moog synthesizer by Wendy Carlos, profoundly demonstrated that synthesizers transcended their reputation as "random noise machines," thereby propelling them into mainstream recognition. Nevertheless, the integration of synthesizers into baroque music sparked considerable debate, leading to their swift abandonment within "serious classical circles," as reported by the Guardian.

Presently, the synthesizer stands as one of the most pivotal instruments within the contemporary music industry, finding application across virtually every genre. The authors of Analog Days assert its unique status as "the only innovation that can stand alongside the electric guitar as a great new instrument of the age of electricity ... Both led to new forms of music, and both had massive popular appeal." Furthermore, a 2016 statement in Fact emphasized its pervasive influence, declaring, "The synthesizer is as important, and as ubiquitous, in modern music today as the human voice."

Influence in Rock Music

The Moog synthesizer gained adoption among prominent 1960s rock acts, including The Doors, The Grateful Dead, The Rolling Stones, The Beatles, and notably, Keith Emerson. Emerson distinguished himself as the first major rock musician to integrate the Moog into his live performances, making it a signature element that propelled his band, Emerson, Lake & Palmer, to international acclaim. As noted in Analog Days, Emerson's pioneering Moog performances "did for the keyboard what Jimi Hendrix did for the guitar." Subsequently, string synthesizers became a staple for 1970s progressive rock ensembles such as Camel, Caravan, Electric Light Orchestra, Gentle Giant, and Renaissance.

The introduction of the portable Minimoog in 1970, significantly more compact than its modular predecessors, facilitated the increased prevalence of synthesizers in live performances. Early synthesizers were predominantly monophonic, capable of playing only a single note concurrently, which rendered them ideal for crafting basslines, lead melodies, and solos. However, with the advent of polyphonic synthesizers during the 1970s and 1980s, "the keyboard in rock once more started to revert to the background, to be used for fills and atmosphere rather than for soloing." Notably, Queen explicitly stated the absence of synthesizers in their 1970s album notes, yet incorporated them into their 1980 album, The Game.

Influence in African-American Music

The Minimoog established a significant presence within mainstream African-American music, prominently featured in the compositions of Stevie Wonder, and also in jazz, exemplified by the works of Sun Ra. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Minimoog saw extensive application within the burgeoning disco genre, utilized by artists such as Abba and Giorgio Moroder. The introduction of sampling technology with the Fairlight synthesizer in 1979 profoundly impacted all musical genres and exerted a substantial influence on the evolution of electronic and hip hop music.

Development in Electronic Music

During the 1970s, electronic music composers like Jean Michel Jarre and Isao Tomita achieved considerable success with instrumental albums prominently featuring synthesizers. This trend significantly contributed to the rise of synth-pop from the late 1970s into the early 1980s. Key influences on the genre's development included the contributions of German krautrock bands such as Kraftwerk and Tangerine Dream, British artists like John Foxx, Gary Numan, and David Bowie, African-American acts including George Clinton and Zapp, and Japanese electronic ensembles such as Yellow Magic Orchestra and Kitaro.

The Roland TB-303 (1981), a sequencer-based synthesizer, along with the Roland TR-808 and TR-909 drum machines, established a fundamental basis for electronic dance music genres like house and techno. This occurred later in the decade when producers began acquiring these units as affordable second-hand equipment. The authors of Analog Days trace the synthesizer's historical roots from 1960s psychedelia to the rave culture and the British "second summer of love" in the 1980s, extending its influence into the club scenes of the 1990s and 2000s.

Pop Music

Synthesizers were prominently featured in Gary Numan's 1979 chart-topping singles, "Are 'Friends' Electric?" and "Cars." Similarly, OMD's 1980 track "Enola Gay" incorporated unique electronic percussion and a synthesized melodic line. Soft Cell's 1981 hit "Tainted Love" also utilized a distinctive synthesized melody. Nick Rhodes, the keyboardist for Duran Duran, frequently employed synthesizers such as the Roland Jupiter-4 and Jupiter-8. Other notable chart successes featuring synthesizers include Depeche Mode's "Just Can't Get Enough" (1981), The Human League's "Don't You Want Me," and various compositions by Ultravox.

During the 1980s, digital synthesizers gained widespread adoption within pop music. The Yamaha DX7, introduced in 1983, became an indispensable instrument in the genre, appearing in tracks by artists such as A-ha, Kenny Loggins, and Kool & the Gang. Its "E PIANO 1" preset achieved particular renown, especially within power ballads, and was utilized by prominent musicians including Whitney Houston, Chicago, Prince, Phil Collins, Luther Vandross, Billy Ocean, and Celine Dion. Subsequently, Korg M1 presets became prevalent in 1990s house music, notably commencing with Madonna's 1990 single "Vogue."

Film and Television Scores

Synthesizers are frequently employed in film and television soundtracks. In 1969, Mort Garson utilized a Moog synthesizer to compose the score for the televised broadcast of the Apollo 11 moonwalk, thereby establishing a connection between electronic music and space exploration in the American public consciousness. ARP synthesizers were also instrumental in generating sound effects for the 1977 science fiction films Close Encounters of the Third Kind and Star Wars, notably contributing to the distinctive voice of the robot R2-D2.

Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, synthesizers were integral to the scores of various thriller and horror films, such as A Clockwork Orange (1971), Apocalypse Now (1979), The Fog (1980), and Manhunter (1986). Brad Fiedel notably employed a Prophet synthesizer to compose the soundtrack for The Terminator (1984), while filmmaker John Carpenter extensively incorporated synthesizers into his own scores. Furthermore, synthesizers were utilized to craft theme music for television series including Knight Rider (1982), Twin Peaks (1990), and Stranger Things (2016).

Occupational Impact

The proliferation of the synthesizer instigated significant transformations within the music industry, particularly concerning job displacement. This phenomenon is comparable to the impact of sound's introduction to film in the 1920s, which rendered live musicians accompanying silent films obsolete. By replicating instruments like strings and horns, the synthesizer posed a threat to session musicians' employment, as a single keyboardist or music programmer could generate the sonic range of an entire orchestra. Consequently, the Moog synthesizer was temporarily prohibited from union-sanctioned work, a restriction established through negotiations with the American Federation of Musicians (AFM). Robert Moog contended that the AFM failed to comprehend that his instrument necessitated dedicated study, similar to any other, instead presuming that "all the sounds that musicians could make somehow existed in the Moog — all you had to do was push a button that said 'Jascha Heifetz' and out would come the most fantastic violin player."

Musician Walter Sear successfully argued to the AFM that proficiency with the synthesizer required specialized skill, leading to the formal acceptance of the synthesizer player category within the union. Nevertheless, synthesizer performers encountered "suspicion and hostility" for an extended period. In 1982, after a Barry Manilow tour utilized synthesizers in lieu of an orchestra, the British Musicians' Union controversially sought to prohibit synthesizers. During the 1980s, a limited number of musicians adept at programming the Yamaha DX7 secured employment by developing custom sounds for other artists.

Sound Synthesis

Synthesizers produce audio signals through diverse methodologies of both analog and digital synthesis.

• Subtractive synthesis involves the generation of complex waveforms by oscillators, which are subsequently modified by filters to attenuate or amplify particular frequencies. This synthesis method is frequently described as producing rich and warm timbres.
• Additive synthesis entails the combination of numerous waveforms, typically sine waves, to construct a complex composite sound.
• Frequency modulation (FM) synthesis, also known as phase modulation, involves modulating a carrier wave's frequency with a modulator wave; the resulting complex waveform can then be further modulated by successive modulators. This synthesis method is often characterized by its harsh, glassy, and chilly timbres.
• Phase distortion synthesis, a technique notably implemented in Casio CZ synthesizers, shares conceptual similarities with FM synthesis.
• Wavetable synthesis enables synthesizers to smoothly transition between various digital waveform representations, thereby altering the sound's shape and timbre.
• Unlike traditional synthesis where sounds are generated internally, sample-based synthesis utilizes digital recordings (samples) that are played back and subsequently sculpted using components like filters, envelopes, and low-frequency oscillators (LFOs).
• Vector synthesis, a technique pioneered with the Prophet VS, allows users to crossfade between distinct sound sources through the manipulation of controllers such as joysticks, envelopes, and LFOs.
• Granular synthesis involves segmenting an audio sample into discrete units, termed grains, typically ranging from one hundredth to one tenth of a second in duration, which are then reassembled and reproduced.
• Physical modeling synthesis entails the creation of a mathematical representation of an acoustic sound source.

Components

Oscillators

Oscillators generate various waveforms, including sawtooth, sine, and pulse waves, each possessing distinct timbral characteristics.

Voltage-Controlled Amplifiers

Voltage-Controlled Amplifiers (VCAs) regulate the volume or gain of an audio signal and can be modulated by other components, such as LFOs and envelopes. A VCA functions as a preamplifier, boosting the electronic signal before it is passed to an external or built-in power amplifier, and also provides a means to control its amplitude (volume) using an attenuator. The gain of the VCA is influenced by a control voltage (CV), which can originate from an envelope generator, an LFO, a keyboard, or various other sources.

Envelopes

Envelopes dictate the temporal evolution of a sound's characteristics, potentially governing parameters such as amplitude (volume), filter settings (frequencies), or pitch. The prevalent envelope type is the ADSR (Attack, Decay, Sustain, Release) envelope, defined as follows:

• Attack refers to the duration required for the sound's level to ascend from silence to its maximum peak, commencing upon the triggering of a note.
• Decay denotes the period during which the sound's level decreases from its peak attack level to the specified sustain level.
• Sustain represents the constant level maintained throughout the primary segment of the sound's duration, persisting until the key is disengaged.
• Release signifies the interval required for the sound's level to diminish from the sustain level to complete silence following the key's release.

Low-Frequency Oscillators

Low-Frequency Oscillators (LFOs) generate waveforms employed to modulate various parameters, including the pitch of other oscillators, thereby creating effects such as vibrato.

Filters

Filters are utilized to subtract specific frequencies from an audio signal, akin to equalization, in order to sculpt the sound's timbre. These components commonly feature controls for defining the frequency attenuation point and for introducing resonance. Prevalent filter types encompass low-pass filters, which eliminate frequencies above a designated threshold, and high-pass filters, which perform the inverse operation. Filters can also be dynamically controlled by envelopes or LFOs.

Arpeggiators

Arpeggiators process input chords and transform them into sequential arpeggios. These devices typically offer controls for adjusting parameters such as speed, range, and mode, which dictates the arpeggio's directional movement.

Controllers

Synthesizers are frequently controlled using electronic or digital keyboards, or MIDI controller keyboards, which may be integrated into the synthesizer unit or connected externally via interfaces such as CV/gate, USB, or MIDI. Keyboards often provide expressive capabilities like velocity sensitivity and aftertouch, enabling more nuanced control over the sound. Other controller types include ribbon controllers, which track finger movement across a touch-sensitive surface; wind controllers, played analogously to woodwind instruments; motion-sensitive controllers, similar to those used in video games; electronic drum pads, operated akin to drum kit heads; touchplates, which transmit signals based on finger position and applied force; specialized controllers designed for microtonal tunings; touchscreen devices such as tablets and smartphones; and fingerpads.

Clones

Synthesizer clones represent unauthorized reproductions of earlier synthesizer models, frequently promoted as cost-effective alternatives to renowned musical instruments. These reproductions are accessible in both physical hardware and software formats. Notable companies offering software-based clones include Arturia and Native Instruments. Behringer produces hardware emulating instruments such as the Minimoog, Pro-One, and TB-303, alongside drum machines like the TR-808. Additional examples of synthesizer clones encompass the MiniMOD, a collection of Eurorack modules derived from the Minimoog; the Intellijel Atlantis, based on the SH-101; and the x0x Heart, which replicates the TB-303.

The production of replicas for older hardware is permissible under law once the associated patents have lapsed. In 1997, Mackie's legal challenge against Behringer was unsuccessful because United States copyright legislation did not extend protection to their circuit board designs.

• Crombie, David (1986). New Complete Synthesizer. Omnibus Press. ISBN 0711907013.Gorges, Peter (2005). Programming Synthesizers. Bremen, Germany: Wizoobooks. ISBN 978-3-934903-48-7.Schmitz, Reinhard (2005). Analog Synthesis. Bremen, Germany: Wizoobooks. ISBN 978-3-934903-01-2.Shapiro, Peter (2000). Modulations: A History of Electronic Music: Throbbing Words on Sound. Caipirinha Productions, US. ISBN 1-891024-06-X.Kuit, Roland (2014). SoundLab I: The Electronic Studio. Publisher's number: 13664. The Hague, The Netherlands: Donemus.Kuit, Roland (2014). SoundLab II: Architectures for Philosophers. Publisher's number: 13665. The Hague, The Netherlands: Donemus.Kuit, Roland (2014). Laboratory of Patching: Illustrated Compendium of Modular Synthesis. Publisher's number: 13662. The Hague, The Netherlands: Donemus.Kuit, Roland (2014). To be On, to be OFF, that's the SWITCH. Publisher's number: 13666. The Hague, The Netherlands: Donemus.References

  Citations

  Sources

  • Sound Synthesis Theory wikibook
  • Synthesizer Tutorial Archived 11 June 2022 at the Wayback Machine